Hormones

This article explains the types of hormones and the effects of several important hormones on the body.

Hormones will help players understand the following sections:

• Guide: Vessel

Knowledge related to hormones includes:

• Guide Knowledge: Neurotransmitters

Types

Specifically, hormones have the following effects on the vessel (the further down, the greater the impact on consciousness):

• Induce or inhibit cell apoptosis
• Activate or suppress the immune system
• Promote or suppress biological growth
• Regulate metabolism
• Control reproductive cycles
• Prepare for new life stages (e.g., puberty, menopause, etc.)
• Prepare for behaviors such as mating, fighting, or fleeing
• Generate feelings of hunger and thirst
• Induce sexual arousal or sexual impulses
• Cause mood fluctuations

The hormones frequently influencing players are as follows:

Name	Secretory Organ	Effects
Adrenaline	Adrenal Gland	Involved in stress response Also a neurotransmitter
Cortisol	Adrenal Gland	Regulates stress response and metabolism
Thyroid Hormones	Thyroid	Regulates growth and metabolism
Growth Hormone	Pituitary	Promotes growth and cell repair
Oxytocin	Hypothalamus	Regulates emotions, social behavior, and reproductive functions Also a neurotransmitter
Luteinizing Hormone	Pituitary	Regulates reproductive functions
Follicle-stimulating Hormone	Pituitary	Regulates reproductive functions
Estrogen	Ovaries	Regulates sexual characteristics and reproductive functions
Progesterone	Ovaries	Regulates the menstrual cycle and reproductive functions
Testosterone	Testes	Regulates sexual characteristics and reproductive functions
Insulin	Pancreas	Regulates blood sugar levels
Glucagon	Pancreas	Raises blood sugar levels

Humans can synthesize some hormones for medicinal treatment of relevant diseases. Certain hormones can also enhance athletic performance in the short term, known as stimulants, thus often used as a means of cheating in competitive sports.

Explanation

Players should understand the following few common important hormones and their effects.

Adrenaline

Adrenaline (Epinephrine) is secreted by the adrenal medulla and certain neurons in the central nervous system (also a neurotransmitter), participating in the stress response.

Adrenaline plays a crucial role in the fight or flight response, promoting glycogen breakdown and increasing blood sugar, facilitating fat breakdown, causing systemic blood vessel constriction, relaxing the gastrointestinal tract, and stimulating the heart, leading to increased heart rate, bronchodilation, and brain blood vessel expansion, putting one in a state of heightened focus, energy, and strength.

Exercise (especially anaerobic exercise) can stimulate adrenaline release, creating a sense of addiction. When you encounter someone you like, feeling flushed cheeks, sweaty palms, and a racing heart are all caused by adrenaline, which can be pleasurable.

On the other hand, excess adrenaline can enhance negative emotions and help strengthen emotional memory (helping to remember what one should avoid in the future).

Cortisol

Cortisol is a glucocorticoid hormone secreted by the adrenal gland, which promotes the breakdown of liver glycogen, gluconeogenesis, regulates microcirculation, and maintains blood pressure, also possessing anti-inflammatory properties. It plays a significant role in responding to stress and is thus referred to as the "stress hormone," which increases blood pressure, blood sugar levels, and induces immunosuppression.

Cortisol levels fluctuate throughout the day, peaking in the morning and dropping to their lowest at midnight.

Stress leads to cortisol secretion. Additionally, variations in cortisol levels are associated with events that induce stress, such as low blood sugar, diseases, fever, trauma, fear, pain, and extreme temperatures.

Normal levels of cortisol help the body restore balance under stress. However, prolonged stress causing long-term cortisol secretion can disrupt other regulatory functions in the body and damage the hippocampus, affecting learning ability.

Thyroid Hormones

Thyroid hormones are essential for growth and development, promoting the development of neuronal scaffolds and the growth of long bones and teeth. A deficiency of thyroid hormones during the embryonic/infancy stage can lead to cretinism.

Both excessive and insufficient secretion of thyroid hormones can lead to diseases:

• Excessive secretion results in hyperthyroidism, characterized by increased basal metabolic rate and endocrine activity, with symptoms such as headaches, nervous tension, rapid heartbeat and respiration, weight loss, increased appetite, insomnia, tremors, excessive sweating, heat sensitivity, fatigue, bulging eyes, digestive issues, and diarrhea, necessitating a reduction in the intake of iodine, a primary substance for thyroid hormones.
• Insufficient secretion results in hypothyroidism, with symptoms including weight gain, cold sensitivity, fatigue, drowsiness, edema, and mental sluggishness.

Growth Hormone

Growth Hormone (GH) promotes growth and cell proliferation.

Growth Hormone is a highly complex hormone that affects the vessel in many ways. Besides influencing growth and development, Growth Hormone plays a crucial role in mental and emotional health as well as maintaining high energy levels. Adults with Growth Hormone deficiency tend to have a higher incidence of depression than those without such deficiency. Moreover, Growth Hormone appears to improve cognitive function and may assist in treating cognitive impairments caused by Growth Hormone deficiency.

Oxytocin

Oxytocin (OT) is generally produced by the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary. It is crucial in social bonding, reproduction, childbirth, and post-childbirth.

Oxytocin is released in large amounts during childbirth, dilating the cervix and contracting the uterus, promoting labor. After childbirth, oxytocin stimulates the nipples to promote milk production, fostering maternal-infant bonding and breastfeeding.

Oxytocin also affects orgasm, social recognition, pairing between couples, anxiety, and maternal behaviors, leading it to sometimes be referred to as the "love hormone." It is released during orgasm and is linked to sexual pleasure and the formation of emotional bonds. According to the pleasure model of sexual motivation, the increase in sexual pleasure following oxytocin release may encourage future sexual activity. Conversely, insufficient oxytocin release can reduce female sexual arousal and motivation.

Oxytocin helps relieve stress and alleviate pain. A lack of oxytocin secretion is associated with an inability to feel empathy, anti-social behaviors, psychosis, narcissism, and general manipulative personality traits.

Estrogen

Estrogen is the primary female hormone, comprising estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), estriol (E3), and estetrol (E4), with estradiol being the most significant. Estrogens are primarily secreted by the ovaries, with small amounts produced by the liver, adrenal cortex, and breast tissue. During pregnancy, the placenta can also secrete a large amount, and male testes also produce a small amount.

Although both males and females contain estrogen, levels are typically significantly higher in fertile women. They promote the development of female secondary sexual characteristics^[1], such as breast development, darkening, and enlargement of the nipples, regulate the menstrual cycle, and increase women's sexual motivation. In men, estrogen regulates certain functions of the reproductive system, which is important for sperm maturation and may be necessary for libido.

Progesterone

Progesterone (P4), also known as luteal hormone, is a sex hormone that regulates the menstrual cycle^[2], pregnancy, and embryonic development, being an important hormone in human reproduction. It is primarily secreted by the corpus luteum of the female ovaries. Progesterone is a key intermediate in the synthesis of most steroid hormones^[3] and is a common precursor of estrogens and androgens.

Progesterone supports normal brain neuron development and has protective effects on damaged brain cells.

Testosterone

Testosterone is the primary male sex hormone. Male testes can produce a large amount of testosterone, while ovaries, the placenta, and the adrenal cortex in both males and females also secrete a small amount. The cells within the male reproductive glands require testosterone to produce sperm.

Testosterone affects the body in several ways:

• Fertility of the testes, prostate, and seminal vesicles
• Development of secondary sexual characteristics^[4]
• Growth of muscle mass and strength, increased bone density and strength
• Stimulating linear growth and skeletal maturity
• Maintaining libido and frequency of erections

Testosterone in both men and women is associated with health and happiness, significantly impacting overall mood, cognition, social and sexual behavior, metabolism and energy output, the cardiovascular system, and the prevention of osteoporosis. Low levels of testosterone in men can lead to abnormal conditions, including weakness, accumulation of body fat, anxiety and depression, sexual dysfunctional issues, and bone loss.

Testosterone also increases male psychological traits (such as increased aggression, sexual impulses, tendencies to impress partners, and other mating behaviors). Additionally, testosterone reduces trust (while oxytocin increases trust). The elimination of testosterone after adulthood has been shown to decrease sexual motivation in male humans.

Translation Note

The original text is in Chinese, and the English translation was automatically generated by ChatGPT. There may be inaccuracies or errors in the expression; please refer to the original text for accuracy.

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1. Female secondary sexual characteristics include: pubic and axillary hair, breast fullness, larger proportions of hips and shoulders compared to males, fewer facial hairs, some women having mustaches, functional mammary glands, more subcutaneous fat, with fat mainly accumulating in the hips and thighs. ↩︎

2. Progesterone participates with estrogens in regulating the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis. After ovulation during the menstrual cycle, the discharged follicle forms a corpus luteum, which then secretes progesterone. Progesterone transforms the endometrium from the proliferative phase to the secretory phase, maintaining its thickness until menstruation, when the corpus luteum shrinks, and blood levels of progesterone plummet, causing the endometrium to shed, resulting in menstruation. In the late menstrual phase, progesterone promotes the growth of glands in the uterine mucosa, thickening the endometrium to provide conducive conditions for the implantation of a fertilized egg (blastocele) and sustenance of early embryos. Low levels of progesterone can lead to delayed menstruation. In non-pregnant women, high amounts of progesterone are secreted only during the second half of each menstrual cycle by the ovarian corpus luteum, with the brain, liver, and adrenal glands also secreting it. During pregnancy (starting from the third month), the placenta also secretes a large amount. ↩︎

3. Steroid hormones can be classified into five groups: glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, androgens, estrogens, and progestogens. ↩︎

4. Male secondary sexual characteristics include: pubic and axillary hair, some people having body hair on the chest and abdomen, facial hair growth, longer body hair on other parts (e.g., limbs), hands and feet generally being larger than women's, broader shoulders and chests, heavier skull and skeletal structure, deeper voices, and less subcutaneous fat (with fat mainly accumulating in the abdomen and waist). ↩︎